在實務上,量化投資組合信用風險常會使用到計算預期信用損失,在銀行衡量放款也常用到這個方法,方法其實還蠻簡單的,這邊就提出個簡單計算債券投資組合的預期信用損失的方法。當然這樣的計算有些不精確,但....債券投資組合管理要計算的東西多如皮毛,就先湊合著用吧!
預期信用損失計算方式
預期信用損失(Expected Credit Loss,ECL)意指投資組合未來面臨信用損失的期望值,其各別信用標的計算方式為:
ECL=EAD x PD x LGD
其中
EAD:信用曝險金額(Exposure at Default)
PD:投資部位或交易對手之信用違約率(Probability of Default)
LGD:投資部位或交易對手之違約損失率(Loss Given Default)
由於投資組合為多個信用標的所組合而成,因此投資組合的預期信用損失計算方式為個別信用標的預期信用損失的加總:
ECLPort=ΣEADi x PDi x LGDi
(1). 信用曝險金額(EAD)
信用曝險金額表示若信用標發生違約時,可能造成損失的部位總額。一般來說,在評價日,債券的信用曝險金額為:
EAD=帳面成本或帳面價值+應收利息
此處的帳面成本與帳面價值取決於被評估債券的持有目的,若是置於交易目的與備供出售之交易,使用帳面價值;若是置於無活絡市場與持有置到期則是使用帳面成本。
(2). 信用違約率(PD)
違約率的估算方式有二種方式,第一種方法可以利用市場資訊透過量化模型來估計違約率,例如:結構式模型(structural-form model)是利用股價資料來計算違約率、縮減式模型(reduced-form model)可以利用市場CDS來計算違約率。此方法的優點是可以即時反應市場對於信用曝險標的的看法,但缺點是在市場面臨流動性問題時也會導致違約率的偏誤;除此之外,若標的沒有股價或是CDS時就無法利用模型來計算違約率。第二種方法則是利用信用機構統計各個信用評等所隱含的違約率來當作估計值,此方式較適用於沒有市場價格或是不需要市價評估之的債券。利用信評機構統計過去各信用評等的違約率作為估計值相較於模型計算較為穩定,較為適用於長期資產配置之投資組合。下表為Moody’s每年會統計自1983年至最新資料年度對各個信評等級在不同年期的累積違約率。但由於該數值為實際統計數據,因此有部分違約率資料因樣本數的關係有違反邏輯的情況發生,例如:在正常的情況下,信用評等越佳期違約率應該較低,但在A1的違約率(1yr~5yr)竟然較A2的違約率高。
Average Cumulative Issuer-Weighted Global Default Rates by Alphanumeric Rating, 1983-2009* | ||||||||||||||||||||
Rating | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 |
Aaa | 0 | 0.016 | 0.016 | 0.048 | 0.086 | 0.132 | 0.182 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 | 0.187 |
Aa1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.094 | 0.141 | 0.158 | 0.158 | 0.158 | 0.158 | 0.158 | 0.158 | 0.158 | 0.31 | 0.503 | 0.721 | 0.805 | 0.805 | 0.805 | 0.805 | 0.805 |
Aa2 | 0 | 0.009 | 0.04 | 0.101 | 0.195 | 0.239 | 0.287 | 0.34 | 0.399 | 0.466 | 0.543 | 0.63 | 0.671 | 0.671 | 0.671 | 0.77 | 0.943 | 1.143 | 1.49 | 1.783 |
Aa3 | 0.05 | 0.13 | 0.185 | 0.254 | 0.324 | 0.373 | 0.403 | 0.417 | 0.42 | 0.471 | 0.576 | 0.777 | 0.98 | 1.144 | 1.313 | 1.475 | 1.711 | 2.214 | 3.021 | 3.861 |
A1 | 0.062 | 0.216 | 0.458 | 0.669 | 0.854 | 0.991 | 1.089 | 1.181 | 1.293 | 1.465 | 1.66 | 1.857 | 2.09 | 2.385 | 2.67 | 3.074 | 3.498 | 3.982 | 4.176 | 4.353 |
A2 | 0.06 | 0.158 | 0.325 | 0.538 | 0.746 | 1.028 | 1.422 | 1.883 | 2.298 | 2.62 | 2.858 | 3.027 | 3.205 | 3.443 | 3.761 | 4.213 | 5.07 | 5.936 | 6.684 | 7.331 |
A3 | 0.048 | 0.191 | 0.396 | 0.567 | 0.83 | 1.104 | 1.367 | 1.666 | 1.945 | 2.153 | 2.433 | 2.774 | 3.183 | 3.595 | 4.233 | 4.904 | 5.517 | 6.471 | 7.268 | 8.053 |
Baa1 | 0.134 | 0.352 | 0.615 | 0.872 | 1.18 | 1.482 | 1.786 | 2.003 | 2.197 | 2.463 | 2.78 | 3.335 | 4.025 | 4.852 | 5.929 | 7.219 | 8.03 | 8.342 | 8.342 | 8.342 |
Baa2 | 0.174 | 0.481 | 0.877 | 1.485 | 2.024 | 2.609 | 3.147 | 3.652 | 4.274 | 5.046 | 5.959 | 6.857 | 7.648 | 8.473 | 9.324 | 10.085 | 10.944 | 11.821 | 12.658 | 13.076 |
Baa3 | 0.299 | 0.85 | 1.528 | 2.194 | 3.081 | 3.985 | 4.802 | 5.766 | 6.657 | 7.539 | 8.227 | 8.802 | 9.9 | 10.983 | 11.529 | 12.27 | 13.347 | 14.49 | 15.776 | 17.126 |
Ba1 | 0.738 | 2.026 | 3.767 | 5.605 | 7.289 | 9.083 | 10.524 | 11.584 | 12.626 | 13.785 | 14.879 | 16.319 | 17.32 | 18.152 | 19.578 | 20.665 | 21.894 | 23.438 | 25.906 | 27.749 |
Ba2 | 0.783 | 2.27 | 4.19 | 6.246 | 8.084 | 9.544 | 10.886 | 12.363 | 13.746 | 15.01 | 16.764 | 18.691 | 20.798 | 22.792 | 25.368 | 27.472 | 29.258 | 29.934 | 30.23 | 30.23 |
Ba3 | 1.844 | 5.264 | 9.314 | 13.56 | 16.948 | 20.015 | 22.934 | 25.941 | 28.951 | 31.871 | 34.185 | 36.244 | 38.795 | 42.46 | 45.068 | 47.512 | 49.478 | 51.212 | 52.999 | 54.66 |
B1 | 2.561 | 7.025 | 11.701 | 15.807 | 20.077 | 24.445 | 29.146 | 33.159 | 36.724 | 39.931 | 42.862 | 46.094 | 49.475 | 52.853 | 54.66 | 56.173 | 58.657 | 60.934 | 63.512 | 66.349 |
B2 | 3.965 | 9.697 | 15.355 | 20.623 | 25.211 | 29.371 | 33.184 | 36.523 | 39.861 | 42.715 | 45.032 | 47.006 | 49.308 | 51.826 | 55.582 | 58.346 | 59.706 | 62.686 | 63.124 | 63.124 |
B3 | 7.941 | 16.279 | 24.224 | 31.004 | 36.907 | 42.531 | 47.024 | 51.137 | 53.988 | 56.487 | 58.889 | 61.461 | 62.577 | 63.197 | 63.386 | 63.386 | 63.753 | 64.429 | 64.429 | 64.429 |
Caa1 | 10.179 | 21.587 | 31.6 | 39.852 | 47.262 | 52.735 | 55.474 | 59.015 | 64.912 | 70.426 | 75.287 | 76.276 | 76.276 | |||||||
Caa2 | 18.497 | 29.471 | 37.978 | 45.038 | 49.868 | 53.829 | 57.069 | 60.593 | 63.772 | 68.712 | 72.641 | 72.641 | 75.02 | 77.761 | 79.894 | 83.724 | 84.741 | 84.741 | 84.741 | 84.741 |
Caa3 | 29.097 | 43.795 | 53.32 | 60.407 | 66.96 | 68.648 | 71.417 | 75.3 | 80.454 | 94.251 | ||||||||||
Ca-C | 36.207 | 48.44 | 57.897 | 64.579 | 70.176 | 72.015 | 74.757 | 78.014 | 78.014 | 78.014 | 78.014 | 78.014 | 78.014 | 78.014 | 78.014 | |||||
Inv Grade | 0.091 | 0.262 | 0.487 | 0.739 | 1.014 | 1.291 | 1.561 | 1.834 | 2.1 | 2.372 | 2.65 | 2.943 | 3.287 | 3.653 | 4.042 | 4.495 | 5.01 | 5.575 | 6.094 | 6.565 |
Spec Grade | 4.804 | 9.954 | 14.891 | 19.249 | 23 | 26.323 | 29.286 | 31.921 | 34.3 | 36.474 | 38.391 | 40.296 | 42.174 | 44.14 | 45.957 | 47.469 | 48.865 | 50.218 | 51.656 | 52.892 |
All rated | 1.761 | 3.62 | 5.348 | 6.819 | 8.046 | 9.093 | 9.991 | 10.773 | 11.465 | 12.1 | 12.67 | 13.232 | 13.809 | 14.406 | 14.99 | 15.573 | 16.185 | 16.829 | 17.448 | 18.002 |
*Data in percent |
資料來源:Moody's Corporate Default and Recovery Rates, 1920-2009
投資組合各債券違約率計算步驟:
Step 1:計算債券的綜合信用評等,此目的是採用多家信評機構所授與的信用評等,可較不受單一信用評等的影響。若綜合信用評等在兩個信評之間,則利用內插法計算之(需先轉為信用評等分數)。
Step 2:計算到期日之年期(tenor),若超過20年則以20年代替。若到期年期在兩個年期之間,則利用內插法計算之。
Step 3:由Step 1與Step 2即可計算相對應之違約率
(3). 損失率(LGD)
損失率的估算大多都是利用歷史的統計數據作為估計值,即使使用信用量化模型也是將損失率視為外生變數。下表為Moody’s統計各年度貸款與債券的各種償債順位的回覆率(Recovery Rate),所謂回覆率即為該債券違約後債券投資人可回收債券面額的百分比,而損失率即為1-回覆率。
但對債券投資人而言,真正的回收百分比還需要考慮購入債券的價格與應收利息的多寡,例如:以80元購入某一債券,假設發生違約後其回覆率為40%,也就是每100元的面額可收回40元,因此對該投資人的實際回覆率為40÷80=50%。若進一步考慮違約時尚有5元的應收利息,因為違約後該應收利息也無法回收,因此其實際回收率將變為40÷(80+5)=47.06%。
Annual Average Defaulted Bond and Loan Recovery Rates* | |||||||
Loan | Bond | ||||||
Year | 1st Lien | Sr. Sec. | Sr. Unsec. | Sr. Sub. | Sub. | Jr. Sub. | All Bonds |
1982 | n.a. | 72.5% | 35.8% | 48.1% | 30.0% | n.a. | 35.3% |
1983 | n.a. | 40.0% | 52.7% | 43.5% | 41.1% | n.a. | 44.5% |
1984 | n.a. | n.a. | 49.4% | 67.9% | 44.3% | n.a. | 45.5% |
1985 | n.a. | 83.6% | 60.2% | 29.6% | 39.7% | 48.5% | 43.6% |
1986 | n.a. | 59.2% | 51.1% | 46.8% | 41.4% | n.a. | 47.4% |
1987 | n.a. | 71.0% | 63.8% | 46.5% | 46.9% | n.a. | 51.3% |
1988 | n.a. | 55.4% | 45.2% | 33.4% | 33.8% | 36.5% | 38.8% |
1989 | n.a. | 46.5% | 45.1% | 34.6% | 26.4% | 16.9% | 32.3% |
1990 | 72.0% | 33.8% | 37.0% | 25.6% | 19.1% | 10.7% | 25.5% |
1991 | 67.9% | 48.4% | 36.7% | 41.8% | 24.4% | 7.8% | 35.5% |
1992 | 60.6% | 62.1% | 49.2% | 49.4% | 38.0% | 13.5% | 45.9% |
1993 | 53.4% | n.a. | 37.1% | 51.9% | 44.2% | n.a. | 43.1% |
1994 | 67.6% | 69.3% | 53.7% | 29.6% | 38.0% | 40.0% | 45.6% |
1995 | 75.4% | 62.0% | 47.6% | 34.3% | 41.5% | n.a. | 43.3% |
1996 | 85.5% | 47.6% | 62.8% | 43.8% | 22.6% | n.a. | 41.5% |
1997 | 78.8% | 75.5% | 56.1% | 44.7% | 33.1% | 30.6% | 48.8% |
1998 | 56.7% | 46.8% | 39.5% | 45.0% | 18.2% | 62.0% | 38.3% |
1999 | 73.6% | 36.0% | 38.0% | 26.9% | 35.6% | n.a. | 33.8% |
2000 | 68.8% | 38.7% | 24.2% | 20.8% | 31.9% | 7.0% | 25.3% |
2001 | 64.9% | 35.0% | 21.5% | 19.8% | 15.9% | 47.0% | 21.8% |
2002 | 58.8% | 49.0% | 29.5% | 21.4% | 24.5% | n.a. | 29.7% |
2003 | 73.4% | 66.3% | 41.9% | 37.2% | 12.3% | n.a. | 40.4% |
2004 | 87.7% | 73.3% | 52.1% | 42.3% | 94.0% | n.a. | 58.5% |
2005 | 83.8% | 71.9% | 54.9% | 26.1% | 51.3% | n.a. | 56.0% |
2006 | 83.6% | 74.6% | 55.0% | 41.4% | 56.1% | n.a. | 55.0% |
2007 | 68.6% | 80.5% | 53.3% | 54.5% | n.a. | n.a. | 54.7% |
2008 | 61.7% | 54.9% | 33.8% | 23.7% | 23.6% | n.a. | 34.0% |
2009 | 54.0% | 37.6% | 37.7% | 22.4% | 46.8% | n.a. | 34.3% |
* Issuer-weighted, based on post default trading prices |
資料來源:Moody's Corporate Default and Recovery Rates, 1920-2009
投資組合各債券回覆率計算步驟:
Step 1:預設以所有年度平均值作為評價日各債券償債順位之預設值。
Step 2:對應投資組合各債券償債順位與上表之對應關係
債券償債順位 |
Moody’s償債順位 |
Senior |
Sr_Sub |
Subordinated |
Sub |
Sub_T1 |
Jr_Sub |
Sub_LT2 |
Sr_Sub |
Sub_UT2 |
Sub |
其它 |
Sr_Sub |
Step 3:依據信用曝險金額作回覆率調整,調整方法為:
調整後回覆率=債券面額/信用曝險金額*原始回覆率
用這樣的計算邏輯就可以做出以下的圖表,除了絕對金額外,最好可以用百分比方式表示,可以排除資產規模所造成的影響。
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